While most of the authorizations quoted above are permissive only, it is worth noting that in one (University of California) it is mandatory: "The degree of bachelor of arts *** must be conferred." Near the close of the 19th century the Commissioner of Education reported concerning the situation in 41 States, as follows:

In 15 States charters to educational institutions are granted by special acts of the State legislatures, in 24 States the charters are granted by certain State or county officials under a general law for the organization of corporations, and in 2 States both methods are in vogue.13

In 13 of the 24 States mentioned, the officer was the Secretary of State.

7. Restrictions on Degrees

With such almost unlimited power to confer degrees, as illustrated in the preceding section, and with the marked development under the elective system of curricula representing divisions and subdivisions of the earlier simple and largely prescribed curricula in arts and sciences, has come the remarkable proliferation of degrees shown in chapters VIII and IX. Only a few regulatory agencies or bodies have made any attempt to control the awarding of this wide variety of degrees.

99 14

The Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in its standards for junior colleges formerly contained the express provision "junior colleges shall not grant degrees." At a meeting of its Commission on Higher Education, however, almost 20 years ago, this provision was interpreted as applying only to baccalaureate and higher degrees, and it was stated that there was "no objection on the part of this Commission to the use of the Associate in Arts title or degree for the completion of the equivalent of a two-year course of study." As a result of the earlier prohibition, most southern States in their statement of standards for accreditation, and some northern States, as well, expressly prohibited junior colleges from conferring degrees. These prohibitions are no longer found except in the case of two States-Georgia and Tennessee 15-and in these States a majority of the junior colleges actually give the Associate in Arts and other Associates, but they are designated as "titles" rather than "degrees." That this is a distinction without a difference, however, is shown by reference to the Dictionary of Education definition which defines a "degree" as a "title." 16

13 Commissioner of Education, Annual Report, 1897-98, p. 1461. Includes 15-page detailed report on conditions in 11 States.

14 Southern Association Quarterly, 6: 251, May 1942.

15 American Junior Colleges, Fourth Edition, 1960, p. 143, 409.

16 For detailed report on attitudes of Accrediting Agencies and State Departments of Education toward the use of the Associate's degree by junior colleges, see W. C. Eells, Associate's Degree and Graduation Practices in Junior Colleges, Washington: American Association of Junior Colleges, 1942, p. 61–75.

550431-60——— 2

California restricts the 60 or more publicly controlled junior colleges in the State to the use of the single degree, Associate in Arts, of which more than 14,000 were conferred in the single year 1958-59. New York is the only State which exercises specific control of all degrees conferred by institutions of higher education within its borders. Currently the "Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York" (the State Education Department) lists 141 degrees with a single abbreviation for each, the only degrees which are authorized to be conferred by higher educational institutions in the State. Any institution operating under the jurisdiction of its Board of Regents must have specific approval for the use of a degree in this list, based upon an examination of its curriculum in the field represented by the degree. The list comprises 2 associate degrees, 36 bachelor's degrees, 48 master's degrees, 47 doctor's degrees, and 8 other degrees. Included are 14 doctor's degrees and 3 master's degrees which are authorized only as honorary degrees. These 141 authorized degrees and their abbreviations are all indicated by New York Board of Regents in connection with the different degrees listed in chapter VIII.

Since 1784 the New York Board of Regents under law has had complete authority in the State in the granting of academic degrees and the setting up of all standards thereunto appertaining. In 1784 only one degree, that of A.B., was authorized in the State. The list has grown from that beginning. Frequently there has been need to restrain institutions seeking to proliferate degrees and courses," but for a time, enforcement was somewhat lax. For example, in 1932 the authorized list contained only 57 degrees, but a special study made at that time showed that no less than 82 unauthorized degrees were being given by the 67 degree-conferring institutions in the State of New York. Fourteen bachelor's degrees were authorized, but 32 others were being given; 13 master's degrees were authorized, but 25 others were being given.18

The situation was found to be so chaotic that a conference to remedy conditions was recommended to be held with representatives of all institutions concerned. This was done, the list of authorized degrees was revised, and is now strictly enforced. It applies not only to the 158 institutions of higher education in New York, but also to a score or more of American-type institutions in the Near, Middle, and Far East, such as the American University of Beirut, which are chartered under New York State Law.

17 Personal letter from F. A. Morse, Secretary to Board of Regents, January 11, 1960. 18 Harlan H. Horner, A Study of Degrees Conferred by Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools in the State of New York. Albany, N.Y.: 1956, mimeographed. (A study made in manuscript in 1932 but not mimeographed until 1956.)

This extent of control of degrees as exercised by New York is of special significance because that State, although having only 9 percent of the population of the United States, conferred in 1957-58 10 percent of the bachelor's degrees, 15 percent of the master's degrees, and 16 percent of the doctor's degrees granted in the country.

8. Degrees from Foreign Institutions

While this monograph is devoted entirely to degrees granted by American institutions, it may be well to refer to a few sources of information on degrees granted by institutions in other countries.

For universities in the British Commonwealth, the best source is the annual volumes of the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook already mentioned.19 The latest volume not only gives the composite list of 633 degrees already referred to, but also detailed information concerning their use in 129 universities in 16 divisions of the Commonwealth.

Chambers gives comprehensive information on degrees granted in 1947 in more than 2,000 institutions of higher education in 85 foreign countries.20

Keyes gives later detailed information on degrees granted in 1959 in almost 500 institutions in 71 countries, excluding those of the United States and the British Commonwealth.21

The International Association of Universities has published a volume giving information concerning degrees awarded by European universities and terminology used.22

9. Possible Future Developments

It is gratifying, perhaps, to find that while a total of more than 2,400 different degrees are reported in the present study, more than one-third of these (34 percent) are not currently offered by recognized institutions of higher education. But the large number actually in use, with the numerous variations in abbreviations used for them, are far in excess of the legitimate needs of higher education to distinguish be

19 J. F. Foster, op. cit.

20 M. M. Chambers, ed., Universities of the World Outside U.S.A. Washington; American Council on Education, 1950. (First edition.) xvii, 924 p. (First edition only one published. Superseded, in modified form, by Keyes, below.)

21 H. M. R. Keyes, ed., International Handbook of Universities, 1959. Paris: International Association of Universities, 1959. xi, 338 p.

22 Documents Concerning the Equivalence of University Qualifications. national Universities Bureau.

Paris: Inter

tween the various programs of study which differ in essential particulars.

For example, it is difficult to find any justification for the degrees of Bachelor of Education, Bachelor of Arts in Education, Bachelor of Science in Education, and Bachelor of Science in Teaching, not to mention Bachelor of Didactics and Bachelor of Pedagogy, no longer in use. Or such as the currently reported Master of Engineering, Master of Engineering Sciences, Master of Science in Engineering, Master of Science in Engineering Science, Master of Science in General Engineering, Master of Science in Engineering Administration, Master of Administrative Engineering, and Master of Science in Engineering Management.

Three quarters of a century ago, Thomas called attention as follows to the lack of uniformity then existing in the usage of academic degrees.

There is such a lack of uniformity in the courses-laid out by the different universities-leading to the same degree, that it is often difficult to decide what a certain degree indicates; for instance-upon the completion of a Latin-Scientific course, Dartmouth confers, Lt. B.; Rochester, B.S.; Syracuse, Brown, and Tufts, Ph. B. Upon the completion of a Classical course most schools confer A.B., but Columbia, Lit. B. A.B. usually indicates that a man has finished a classical course, but A.B., Johns Hopkins, and A.B., Harvard, merely indicates that a man has studied about four years in college; the course may have been purely Scientific. Upon the completion of a Scientific course most schools confer B.S., but Shurtleff, Yale, and Vermont confer Ph. B., Cornell, indicates an English Literature course; Lit. B., Columbia, Classical; and Lit. B., Dartmouth, a LatinScientific. LL.D., and D.C.L., do not indicate legal knowledge; Ph. D. is not proof of knowledge of Philosophy."

In the 73 years since these observations were made the situation thus described has been greatly aggravated. The author of this characterization went on to list 63 degrees then in use and abbreviations for them, in 12 cases giving 2, 3, or even 4 abbreviations for the same degree. Today, he might have reported no less than a dozen different abbreviations in use for the single degree of Bachelor of Science in Education and almost as many for numerous other degrees, as reported in detail in chapter VIII.

Horner's New York study, already referred to, found the situation particularly aggravated in three fields-Business, with 20 degrees; Education with 9; and Engineering with 42 degrees. To alleviate the situation which the author characterized as "unusually chaotic," 24 it was recommended that conferences be called of the presidents or deans of the institutions or departments concerned to "clear up an impossible situation." This was done, with the improvement in uniformity and standardization in the State already noted.

23 F. S. Thomas, op. cit., p. 37.

Horner, op. cit., p. 6.

The same sort of recommendations could with propriety be made today for the country as a whole, and particularly in the fields indicated as especially aggravated in New York a quarter-century ago. For the situation today is far more "chaotic" and calls even more loudly to "clear up an impossible situation" which has become far more impossible in the country as a whole. An examination of chapter VIII will show lists of 348 degrees currently reported as conferred in the field of engineering, 258 in education, 176 in business, and 146 in the medical sciences.

Thomas, previously quoted, wrote in 1887:

It is very evident that there is a gradual evolution going on in this matter of degrees. It seems to me that it would be wise to look ahead and lead it as wisely as we can, working upon the system, upon the degrees in all departments, by concerted action, instead of each university pulling in its own peculiar-in some cases very peculiar-way: one varying this degree, the other that degree, to suit its own peculiar fancy."

Very recently a University of California educator has expressed it as his opinion that "no degree should be coined without national approval," " preferably by a federation of universities.

It may be suggested that national or regional organizations, concerned with the whole field of higher education, or national organizations in particular subject matter fields, such as engineering, education, business, or medicine, could well appoint representative committees to consider the possibilities and advantages of simplification and standardization in degree nomenclature and degree abbreviations. The Association of American Universities for several years maintained a standing committee on Higher Academic and Professional Degrees. Its report for 1924 made recommendations with reference to appropriate degrees in library science and in dentistry." Perhaps such a committee should be reestablished by this association or other representative national educational organizations.

26 Thomas, op. cit., p. 29.

Max S. Marshall, “Upward by Degrees," School & Society, 73:49-52, January 27, 1951. Association of American Universities, Transactions, 1924, pp. 25-26.