remaining in college is not so clear. Leighton is somewhat contradictory on this point. On the one hand, she notes that students from uneducated families do as well as those from educated families, once they do enter (p. 296). On the other hand, she finds that having at least one parent with a minimum level of an eighth-grade education is positively related to successful completion of a college course (p. 314). The conclusions she draws from her data call for clarification. Elsewhere in her study, however, she demonstrates the impact of family organization on academic success. "There were more students who graduated from secure, consanguineal families with an understanding of a need for education, than from similarly secure families without the understanding of this need for education and its problems" (p. 289). Furthermore, she found that the values of a secure membership in a Navaho nuclear family appear to make dropping out more probable when family demands are made on the student (p. 331). No doubt the family has a profound influence upon one's college career.

Hamblin (235), using data from a questionnaire administered to Apache and Navaho high school seniors, also demonstrated the importance of the family in creating a desire to undertake higher education. In this case the students reported that they received the most encouragement from their parents, with only limited encouragement from teachers and friends. Whether or not this encouragement actually resulted in college entrance is not explored in this study.

McGrath and Quimby also report that the parents' attitudes are definitely related to a student's success in college. Quimby says, in fact, that the attitude of parents is one of the most decisive factors in discriminating between successful and unsuccessful college students (p. 83). McGrath, too, indicates a definite relationship between grades and the attitudes of parents. His findings, however, are not exactly what one might anticipate. Says he, "Only 36 percent of those students whose parents actively encourage them in their college education achieve a grade point average of 2 or higher, while 51 percent of those students whose parents are reported to be pleased but not actively encouraging their children in college earn a 2 or better grade average.' McGrath interprets this to mean that "many Indian students are in college because their parents wish them to continue their education rather than because of any real desire on their own part. Those whose parents are pleased but not actively encouraging them may be the ones who are really interested in bettering themselves through education" (p. 252).

The fact remains that parents' attitudes affect college performance. Of all the cases reviewed by McGrath, there was not one instance of a successful student coming from a home where parents actively discouraged college attendance, and there was only one case on record of a successful student coming from a home where parents were displeased but did not actively discourage attendance.

Tribal, as well as parental, encouragement may also be related to success in college. This relationship has been explored by both Nix and McGrath. Both studies, as indicated earlier in this chapter, extensively review the numerous programs, financial and otherwise, which tribes have established to encourage higher education. The McGrath study examines the programs set up by 37 tribes in the

Southwest, whereby scholarships, loans, summer employment, and so forth, are made available to college students. Nix studied the activities of 13 Arizona Indian groups, and found that many of them provide scholarships, make educational loans, provide employment during vacations, furnish books and clothing, offer guidance and counseling, and in various other ways try to encourage their youths to attend college.

What relationship this encouragement bears to college success, however, remains an open question. While Nix found that increase of tribal scholarships has led to an increase in college attendance, he could not draw definite conclusions regarding the effect of these programs on academic achievement. For one thing, many of the programs are too recent to permit such an analysis; and, furthermore, many factors other than tribal encouragement are related to academic success, and it has been impossible to control these other factors so as to isolate the effects of tribal encouragement. McGrath, too, failed to draw definite conclusions regarding the impact of these programs. Interviews with tribal leaders, however, indicated that they were convinced that such encouragement was important. Thirty-eight percent of all tribal leaders interviewed, in fact, identified lack of encouragement from family and tribe as a major cause of dropping out. And a full 55 percent of these leaders believe that the way to help Indian students succeed in college is to "keep in touch with them and let them know that the tribe cares."

In summary, it can be said that Indian college students, on the whole, do not do well in college. There are many reasons for this failure. Some of these, such as limited or faulty educational background have been rather thoroughly explored. Others, such as cultural, situational, and personality factors call for further study.

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